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JOURNAL ARTICLES.
FORMIDABILITY AND AGGRESSION IN MEN: A META-ANALYTIC REVIEW SUPPORTING A BAYESIAN DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL OF AGGRESSION.
DURKEE, P.K., NGUYEN, A.-M.D., & GOETZ, A. T. (2019). FORMIDABILITY AND AGGRESSION IN MEN: A META-ANALYTIC REVIEW SUPPORTING A BAYESIAN DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL OF AGGRESSION. MANUSCRIPT IN PREPARATION.
Aggression can be understood as a strategy for increasing an individual’s fitness. The effectiveness of this strategy, however, is highly dependent on the formidability of the aggressor. Aggression and formidability should therefore be positively related. Previous research has found mixed support for this relationship; the current meta-analysis addresses this discrepancy. Studies were eligible for inclusion if a correlation between men’s formidability and aggression was reported. A total of 32 eligible studies were identified and coded for analysis (N = 9,925). Random effects models indicated a small, but statistical, positive correlation between formidability and aggression in men. Aggression type (i.e., physical vs. verbal), aggression measure (i.e., scale vs. frequency), formidability operationalization (e.g., strength, height, weight), age, and sample type were explored as potential moderators of the effect, yielding mixed results. These meta-analytic findings contribute to understanding the relationship between formidability and aggression and highlight effective methods and directions for future research.
Aggression can be understood as a strategy for increasing an individual’s fitness. The effectiveness of this strategy, however, is highly dependent on the formidability of the aggressor. Aggression and formidability should therefore be positively related. Previous research has found mixed support for this relationship; the current meta-analysis addresses this discrepancy. Studies were eligible for inclusion if a correlation between men’s formidability and aggression was reported. A total of 32 eligible studies were identified and coded for analysis (N = 9,925). Random effects models indicated a small, but statistical, positive correlation between formidability and aggression in men. Aggression type (i.e., physical vs. verbal), aggression measure (i.e., scale vs. frequency), formidability operationalization (e.g., strength, height, weight), age, and sample type were explored as potential moderators of the effect, yielding mixed results. These meta-analytic findings contribute to understanding the relationship between formidability and aggression and highlight effective methods and directions for future research.
Evolutionary perspectives on the mechanistic underpinnings of personality.
lukaszewski, A. (2019). Evolutionary perspectives on the mechanistic underpinnings of personality. to appear in: Rauthmann, J. (Ed.) the handbook of personality dynamics and processes. san diego, ca: elsevier press.
Evolutionary theory is the organizing framework for the life sciences because of its unique value in deriving falsifiable predictions about the causal structure of organisms. This paper outlines the relationships of evolutionary principles to the study of phenotypic variation and defines two distinct paradigms for personality science. The first of these, dimensional cost-benefit analysis (DCBA), entails analyzing the reproductive cost-benefit tradeoffs along inductively derived personality dimensions (e.g., the big five) to derive predictions regarding adaptively-patterned variation in manifest trait levels. The second paradigm, ground-up adaptationism (GUA), requires building models of specific psychological mechanisms, from the ground-up, including their variable parameters that result in manifest behavioral variation. After evaluating the strengths and limitations of these paradigms, it is concluded that (1) inductively derived dimensions of person description should not serve as the field’s explanatory targets; (2) GUA represents the most powerful available framework for elucidating the psychological mechanisms which comprise human nature and produce its diverse range of behavioral variants; and (3) the goals of adaptationist evolutionary psychology are the same as those guiding personality psychology’s next era: to identify the mechanisms that comprise the mind, figure out how they work, and determine how they generate behavioral variation.
Evolutionary theory is the organizing framework for the life sciences because of its unique value in deriving falsifiable predictions about the causal structure of organisms. This paper outlines the relationships of evolutionary principles to the study of phenotypic variation and defines two distinct paradigms for personality science. The first of these, dimensional cost-benefit analysis (DCBA), entails analyzing the reproductive cost-benefit tradeoffs along inductively derived personality dimensions (e.g., the big five) to derive predictions regarding adaptively-patterned variation in manifest trait levels. The second paradigm, ground-up adaptationism (GUA), requires building models of specific psychological mechanisms, from the ground-up, including their variable parameters that result in manifest behavioral variation. After evaluating the strengths and limitations of these paradigms, it is concluded that (1) inductively derived dimensions of person description should not serve as the field’s explanatory targets; (2) GUA represents the most powerful available framework for elucidating the psychological mechanisms which comprise human nature and produce its diverse range of behavioral variants; and (3) the goals of adaptationist evolutionary psychology are the same as those guiding personality psychology’s next era: to identify the mechanisms that comprise the mind, figure out how they work, and determine how they generate behavioral variation.
Pride and shame: key components of a culturally universal status management system.
DURKEE, P. K., LUKASZEWSKI, A. W. & BUSS, D. M. (2019). PRIDE AND SHAME: KEY COMPONENTS OF A CULTURALLY UNIVERSAL STATUS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM. EVOLUTION AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR, 40(5), 470-478.
We apply recent adaptationist theories about the emotions “pride” and “shame” to the domain of hierarchical status and test the hypothesis that pride and shame are distinct components of a culturally universal status-management system. Using an international dataset containing ratings of the status impacts of 240 personal characteristics within 14 nations (N = 2751), we found that (i) the status impacts of personal characteristics were strongly intercorrelated across nations (rs = 0.79–0.98); (ii) American's (N = 222) forecasts of the pride or shame they would experience if they exhibited those same personal characteristics closely tracked the status impacts across nations (|rs| = 0.74–0.98); and (iii) pride differentially tracked status gains, while shame differentially tracked status losses. These findings provide strong supporting evidence for the existence of a universal grammar of status criteria, and suggest that pride and shame are key components of a culturally universal status management system.
We apply recent adaptationist theories about the emotions “pride” and “shame” to the domain of hierarchical status and test the hypothesis that pride and shame are distinct components of a culturally universal status-management system. Using an international dataset containing ratings of the status impacts of 240 personal characteristics within 14 nations (N = 2751), we found that (i) the status impacts of personal characteristics were strongly intercorrelated across nations (rs = 0.79–0.98); (ii) American's (N = 222) forecasts of the pride or shame they would experience if they exhibited those same personal characteristics closely tracked the status impacts across nations (|rs| = 0.74–0.98); and (iii) pride differentially tracked status gains, while shame differentially tracked status losses. These findings provide strong supporting evidence for the existence of a universal grammar of status criteria, and suggest that pride and shame are key components of a culturally universal status management system.
FORMIDABILITY ASSESSMENT MECHANISMS: EXAMINING THEIR SPEED AND AUTOMATICITY.
DURKEE, P.K., GOETZ, A. T., & LUKASZEWSKI, A. W. (2018). FORMIDABILITY ASSESSMENT MECHANISMS: EXAMINING THEIR SPEED AND AUTOMATICITY. EVOLUTION AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR, 39, 170-178. [PKD & ATG SHARE FIRST AUTHORSHIP.]
Throughout vertebrate evolution, asymmetries in the ability to inflict costs on others (i.e., formidability) have determined the outcomes of contests over limited resources. Therefore, natural selection would have favored mechanisms designed to efficiently and accurately estimate the formidability of conspecifics. Although previous research has provided evidence for the existence of adaptations for formidability assessment, the design features of these mechanisms have not been fully examined. In the current study, participants underwent a battery of tasks to test hypotheses regarding the speed and automaticity of formidability assessment mechanisms. Results suggest that formidability is automatically and rapidly tracked and assessed from visual cues. With a few interesting exceptions, characteristics of the raters (N = 187) and targets (N = 64) did not influence these assessments. Additionally, we present eye–tracking data to highlight the salience of upper–body musculature as a cue to physical strength. Taken together, these findings bolster and extend evidence for formidability assessment mechanisms in humans.
Throughout vertebrate evolution, asymmetries in the ability to inflict costs on others (i.e., formidability) have determined the outcomes of contests over limited resources. Therefore, natural selection would have favored mechanisms designed to efficiently and accurately estimate the formidability of conspecifics. Although previous research has provided evidence for the existence of adaptations for formidability assessment, the design features of these mechanisms have not been fully examined. In the current study, participants underwent a battery of tasks to test hypotheses regarding the speed and automaticity of formidability assessment mechanisms. Results suggest that formidability is automatically and rapidly tracked and assessed from visual cues. With a few interesting exceptions, characteristics of the raters (N = 187) and targets (N = 64) did not influence these assessments. Additionally, we present eye–tracking data to highlight the salience of upper–body musculature as a cue to physical strength. Taken together, these findings bolster and extend evidence for formidability assessment mechanisms in humans.
WHAT EXPLAINS PERSONALITY COVARIATION? A TEST OF THE SOCIOECOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY HYPOTHESIS.
LUKASZEWSKI, A., GURVEN, M., VON RUEDEN, C. R., SCHMITT, D. P. (2017). WHAT EXPLAINS PERSONALITY COVARIATION? A TEST OF THE SOCIOECOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY HYPOTHESIS. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE, 8(8), 943-952.
Correlations among distinct behaviors are foundational to personality science, but the field remains far from a consensus regarding the causes of such covariation. We advance a novel explanation for personality covariation, which views trait covariance as being shaped within a particular socioecology. We hypothesize that the degree of personality covariation observed within a society will be inversely related to the society’s socioecological complexity, that is, its diversity of social and occupational niches. Using personality survey data from participant samples in 55 nations (N ¼ 17,637), we demonstrate that the Big Five dimensions are more strongly intercorrelated in less complex societies, where the complexity is indexed by nation-level measures of economic development, urbanization, and sectoral diversity. This inverse relationship is robust to control variables accounting for a number of methodological and response biases. Our findings support the socioecological complexity hypothesis and more generally bolster functionalist accounts of trait covariation.
Correlations among distinct behaviors are foundational to personality science, but the field remains far from a consensus regarding the causes of such covariation. We advance a novel explanation for personality covariation, which views trait covariance as being shaped within a particular socioecology. We hypothesize that the degree of personality covariation observed within a society will be inversely related to the society’s socioecological complexity, that is, its diversity of social and occupational niches. Using personality survey data from participant samples in 55 nations (N ¼ 17,637), we demonstrate that the Big Five dimensions are more strongly intercorrelated in less complex societies, where the complexity is indexed by nation-level measures of economic development, urbanization, and sectoral diversity. This inverse relationship is robust to control variables accounting for a number of methodological and response biases. Our findings support the socioecological complexity hypothesis and more generally bolster functionalist accounts of trait covariation.
PREFERENCES FOR VISIBLE WHITE SCLERA IN ADULTS, CHILDREN AND AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER CHILDREN: A TEST OF THE COOPERATIVE EYE HYPOTHESIS.
SEGAL, N. L., GOETZ, A. T., & MALDONADO, A. (2015). PREFERENCES FOR VISIBLE WHITE SCLERA IN ADULTS, CHILDREN AND AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER CHILDREN: A TEST OF THE COOPERATIVE EYE HYPOTHESIS. EVOLUTION AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR, 37, 35-39.
Visible white sclera (i.e., the opaque white outer coat enclosing the eyeball) is a uniquely human trait. An explanation for why such coloration evolved has been put forward by the Cooperative Eye Hypothesis (Kobayashi and Hashiya, 2011; Kobayashi and Kohshima, 1997, 2001; Tomasello et al., 2007), which states that visible white sclera evolved to facilitate communication via joint attention and signaling of gaze direction. Therefore, we hypothesized that viewers comprised of both typically developing children and adults would show reliable preferences for stimuli with visible white sclera. However, because autism spectrum disorder (ASD) individuals have impaired social cognition and show gaze aversion, we also hypothesized that ASD children would show no consistent preference for eyes with visible white sclera. We tested these hypotheses by obtaining participants’ preferences across six sets of stuffed animals, identical but for the manipulation of eye size, eye color, and presence of visible sclera. Both hypotheses were supported. In addition to providing evidence consistent with the Cooperative Eye Hypothesis, our results also suggest that eyes and gaze serve a central role in social cognition. Furthermore, our results from ASD children have practical applications for therapeutic practices and evidence-based interventions.
Visible white sclera (i.e., the opaque white outer coat enclosing the eyeball) is a uniquely human trait. An explanation for why such coloration evolved has been put forward by the Cooperative Eye Hypothesis (Kobayashi and Hashiya, 2011; Kobayashi and Kohshima, 1997, 2001; Tomasello et al., 2007), which states that visible white sclera evolved to facilitate communication via joint attention and signaling of gaze direction. Therefore, we hypothesized that viewers comprised of both typically developing children and adults would show reliable preferences for stimuli with visible white sclera. However, because autism spectrum disorder (ASD) individuals have impaired social cognition and show gaze aversion, we also hypothesized that ASD children would show no consistent preference for eyes with visible white sclera. We tested these hypotheses by obtaining participants’ preferences across six sets of stuffed animals, identical but for the manipulation of eye size, eye color, and presence of visible sclera. Both hypotheses were supported. In addition to providing evidence consistent with the Cooperative Eye Hypothesis, our results also suggest that eyes and gaze serve a central role in social cognition. Furthermore, our results from ASD children have practical applications for therapeutic practices and evidence-based interventions.
The implicit rules of combat.
Romero, G. A., Pham, M. A., & Goetz, A. T. (2014). The implicit rules of combat. Human Nature, 25, 496-515.
Conspecific violence has been pervasive throughout evolutionary history. The current research tested the hypotheses that individuals implicitly categorize combative contexts (i.e., play fighting, status contests, warfare, and anti-exploitative violence) and use the associated contextual information to guide expectations of combative tactics. Using U.S. and non-U.S. samples, Study 1 demonstrated consistent classification of combative contexts from scenarios for which little information was given and predictable shifts in the acceptability of combative tactics across contexts. Whereas severe tactics (e.g., eye-gouging) were acceptable in warfare and anti-exploitative violence, they were unacceptable in status contests and play fights. These results suggest the existence of implicit rules governing the contexts of combat. In Study 2, we explored the reputational consequences of violating these implicit rules. Results suggest that rule violators (e.g., those who use severe tactics in a status contest) are given less respect. These are the first studies to implicate specialized mechanisms for aggression that use contextual cues of violence to guide expectations and behavior.
Conspecific violence has been pervasive throughout evolutionary history. The current research tested the hypotheses that individuals implicitly categorize combative contexts (i.e., play fighting, status contests, warfare, and anti-exploitative violence) and use the associated contextual information to guide expectations of combative tactics. Using U.S. and non-U.S. samples, Study 1 demonstrated consistent classification of combative contexts from scenarios for which little information was given and predictable shifts in the acceptability of combative tactics across contexts. Whereas severe tactics (e.g., eye-gouging) were acceptable in warfare and anti-exploitative violence, they were unacceptable in status contests and play fights. These results suggest the existence of implicit rules governing the contexts of combat. In Study 2, we explored the reputational consequences of violating these implicit rules. Results suggest that rule violators (e.g., those who use severe tactics in a status contest) are given less respect. These are the first studies to implicate specialized mechanisms for aggression that use contextual cues of violence to guide expectations and behavior.
Is the vertical-horizontal illusion a byproduct of the ENVIRONMENT illusion?
Hahnel-Peeters, R.K., Idoine, J.L., Jackson, R.E., & Goetz, A.T. (2020) Is the vertical-horizontal illusion a byproduct of the environmental vertical illusion? Evolutionary Psychology. doi: 10.1177%2F1474704920961953 [Note: Hahnel-Peeters, R.K. and Idoine, J.L. share first authorship]
The vertical-horizontal illusion is the overestimation of a vertical line compared to a horizontal line of the same length. Jackson and Cormack (2007) proposed that the vertical-horizontal illusion might be a byproduct of the mechanisms that generate the environmental vertical illusion, which is the tendency to overestimate vertical distances (i.e., heights) relative to horizontal distances the same length. In our study, 326 undergraduate participants stood atop an 18.6-meter parking structure and estimated both the height of the structure and the horizontal distance of a target placed 18.6 meters away, using a moveable horizontal target across the length of the structure. Participants also completed a vertical-horizontal illusion task by drawing a horizontal line below a 9.1 cm vertical line. We correlated vertical distance estimates with vertical line estimates to test Jackson and Cormack’s byproduct hypothesis. This hypothesis was very weakly—if at all—supported by the data: Participants’ overestimations in the vertical-horizontal illusion task explained 1% of the variance associated with their overestimations in the environmental vertical illusion task. Additionally, to test whether the environmental vertical illusion is impervious to explicit awareness, a random half of our participants were advised to be mindful that people tend to overestimate heights. The results supported our second hypothesis: Even when participants were made aware of the environmental vertical illusion, they still reliably overestimated heights. Discussion addressed implications for the robustness of the environmental vertical illusion (e.g., treatment of those with acrophobia.)
The vertical-horizontal illusion is the overestimation of a vertical line compared to a horizontal line of the same length. Jackson and Cormack (2007) proposed that the vertical-horizontal illusion might be a byproduct of the mechanisms that generate the environmental vertical illusion, which is the tendency to overestimate vertical distances (i.e., heights) relative to horizontal distances the same length. In our study, 326 undergraduate participants stood atop an 18.6-meter parking structure and estimated both the height of the structure and the horizontal distance of a target placed 18.6 meters away, using a moveable horizontal target across the length of the structure. Participants also completed a vertical-horizontal illusion task by drawing a horizontal line below a 9.1 cm vertical line. We correlated vertical distance estimates with vertical line estimates to test Jackson and Cormack’s byproduct hypothesis. This hypothesis was very weakly—if at all—supported by the data: Participants’ overestimations in the vertical-horizontal illusion task explained 1% of the variance associated with their overestimations in the environmental vertical illusion task. Additionally, to test whether the environmental vertical illusion is impervious to explicit awareness, a random half of our participants were advised to be mindful that people tend to overestimate heights. The results supported our second hypothesis: Even when participants were made aware of the environmental vertical illusion, they still reliably overestimated heights. Discussion addressed implications for the robustness of the environmental vertical illusion (e.g., treatment of those with acrophobia.)
Functional coordination of personality strategies with physical strength and attractiveness: A multi-sample investigation at the HEXACO facet-level
Rodriguez, N. N., & Lukaszewski, A. W. (2020). Functional coordination of personality strategies with physical strength and attractiveness: A multi-sample investigation at the HEXACO facet-level. Journal of Research in Personality, 89, 104040.
Previous research has supported adaptationist hypotheses pertaining to the functional coordination of personality strategies with phenotypic determinants of bargaining power, such as physical strength and attractiveness. However, prior studies have focused primarily on explaining variation in Extraversion and Emotionality/Neuroticism as broadband traits. The current study synthesizes data from three subject samples (N = 766) to test correlations of physical strength and attractiveness with the HEXACO factors and facets among young adults. Our analyses reveal specific, functionally meaningful, patterns of phenotypic coordination, and thereby help illuminate which facets drive previously documented associations at the factor-level. Among both sexes, strength was an especially important predictor of facets whose secondary loadings place them in the quadrant of factor space defined by high Extraversion (Expressiveness, Liveliness, Social Boldness) and low Emotionality (Fearfulness, Anxiety). Findings bolster the hypothesis that specific personality strategies are coordinated with phenotypic components of bargaining power, and suggest that granular measures of personality (such as facets) may provide more mechanistic and functional insight than broadband trait factors.
Previous research has supported adaptationist hypotheses pertaining to the functional coordination of personality strategies with phenotypic determinants of bargaining power, such as physical strength and attractiveness. However, prior studies have focused primarily on explaining variation in Extraversion and Emotionality/Neuroticism as broadband traits. The current study synthesizes data from three subject samples (N = 766) to test correlations of physical strength and attractiveness with the HEXACO factors and facets among young adults. Our analyses reveal specific, functionally meaningful, patterns of phenotypic coordination, and thereby help illuminate which facets drive previously documented associations at the factor-level. Among both sexes, strength was an especially important predictor of facets whose secondary loadings place them in the quadrant of factor space defined by high Extraversion (Expressiveness, Liveliness, Social Boldness) and low Emotionality (Fearfulness, Anxiety). Findings bolster the hypothesis that specific personality strategies are coordinated with phenotypic components of bargaining power, and suggest that granular measures of personality (such as facets) may provide more mechanistic and functional insight than broadband trait factors.